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COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION Guidelines for national courts on how to estimate the share of overcharge which was passed on to the indirect purchaser · European Union

| (179) | One example of market structures characterised by imperfect competition is a market with differentiated products. Differentiation can arise either in terms of product characteristics or geography. For instance, the direct purchasers may offer products which differ from each other in their actual quality, or the quality perceived by the customers of the product. Alternatively, due to different locations of the direct purchasers, the transportation costs of the goods offered may vary in relation to different customers (whose location might also differ). Differentiation can make products less than perfect substitutes of each other. Customers might not view all products as perfectly interchangeable.

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Source: EUR-Lex (Cellar) · retrieved 2026-09-25 · Text as adopted (Official Journal); later amendments are not incorporated in this text.